What Is a Shared Attribute of All Members of the Ethernet Family of Networking Technologies?

Network that allows computers to share resources and communicate with each other

A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided past network nodes. The computers use common advice protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with each other. These interconnections are made up of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies.

The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by network addresses, and may accept hostnames. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes, rarely inverse afterward initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by advice protocols such as the Net Protocol.

Computer networks may be classified past many criteria, including the transmission medium used to carry signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network size, the topology, traffic control mechanism, and organizational intent.

Calculator networks support many applications and services, such equally admission to the World wide web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of awarding and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and utilize of electronic mail and instant messaging applications.

History [edit]

Reckoner networking may be considered a branch of estimator science, computer engineering, and telecommunications, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a broad array of engineering science developments and historical milestones.

In the belatedly 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.Southward. military Semi-Automatic Basis Environment (SAGE) radar system using the Bong 101 modem. It was the first commercial modem for computers, released by AT&T Corporation in 1958. The modem allowed digital data to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s).
In 1959, Christopher Strachey filed a patent application for time-sharing and John McCarthy initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT.^[1] ^[2] ^[3] ^[four] Stratchey passed the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider at the inaugural UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris that year.^[v] McCarthy was instrumental in the cosmos of iii of the earliest fourth dimension-sharing systems (Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, BBN Time-Sharing Organization in 1962, and Dartmouth Fourth dimension Sharing Organization in 1963).
In 1959, Anatoly Kitov proposed to the Cardinal Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed programme for the re-organisation of the control of the Soviet military machine and of the Soviet economy on the ground of a network of calculating centres.^[6] Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later on was the 1962 OGAS economy direction network project.^[7]
In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business organisation enquiry environment (SABRE) went online with two connected mainframes.
In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Reckoner Network", a computer network intended to allow general communications amongst calculator users.
Throughout the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the concept of packet switching to transfer information between computers over a network.^[8] ^[9] ^[10] Davies pioneered the implementation of the concept. The NPL network, a local expanse network at the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) used a line speed of 768 kbit/south and later high-speed T1 links (ane.544 Mbit/s line rate).^[xi] ^[12] ^[xiii]
In 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used phone switch that implemented computer control in the switching fabric.
In 1969, the first 4 nodes of the ARPANET were connected using l kbit/southward circuits between the Academy of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Plant, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah.^[14] In the early 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried out mathematical work to model the performance of package-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET.^[15] ^[16] His theoretical work on hierarchical routing in the late 1970s with pupil Farouk Kamoun remains disquisitional to the performance of the Internet today.
In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on public data networks in Europe,^[17] ^[18] ^[19] which began using X.25 in the late 1970s and spread across the earth.^[11] The underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s.^[20]
In 1973, the French CYCLADES network was the get-go to make the hosts responsible for the reliable commitment of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself.^[21]
In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing Ethernet, a networking system that was based on the Aloha network, developed in the 1960s by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Reckoner Networks"^[22] and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.
In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine published the Transmission Command Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675, coining the term Cyberspace as a shorthand for internetworking.^[23]
In 1976, John White potato of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices.
In 1977, the showtime long-distance fiber network was deployed past GTE in Long Embankment, California.
In 1977, Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was developed by Robert Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at Xerox.^[24]
In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard.^[25]
In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/southward protocol, which was developed by Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus,^[26] and Yogen Dalal.^[27]
In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/south to 100 Mbit/southward. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of i Gbit/s. Later on, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018^[update]). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its continued use.^[25]

Use [edit]

A computer network extends interpersonal communications by electronic means with various technologies, such as electronic mail, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such every bit printing a document on a shared network printer or employ of a shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, information, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access data stored on other computers on the network. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to reach tasks.

Network packet [edit]

Well-nigh modern reckoner networks use protocols based on parcel-mode manual. A network packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a package-switched network.

Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user information (payload). The control information provides information the network needs to deliver the user information, for example, source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control data is found in package headers and trailers, with payload information in between.

With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared amongst users than if the network were excursion switched. When i user is not sending packets, the link tin be filled with packets from other users, and so the toll tin can exist shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link isn't overused. Often the route a packet needs to accept through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is queued and waits until a link is costless.

The physical link technologies of parcel network typically limit the size of packets to a sure maximum transmission unit (MTU). A longer message may exist fragmented before it is transferred and once the packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message.

Network topology [edit]

Common network topologies

The concrete or geographic locations of network nodes and links generally take relatively little upshot on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as double-decker or star networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore most network diagrams are arranged by their network topology which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts.

Common layouts are:

Omnibus network: all nodes are continued to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2. This is however a mutual topology on the data link layer, although modern physical layer variants use point-to-point links instead, forming a star or a tree.
Star network: all nodes are continued to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a small switched Ethernet LAN, where each client connects to a central network switch, and logically in a wireless LAN, where each wireless client associates with the central wireless access signal.
Ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbour node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can achieve each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. Token ring networks, and the Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), made utilize of such a topology.
Mesh network: each node is connected to an capricious number of neighbours in such a manner that at that place is at least one traversal from any node to any other.
Fully continued network: each node is connected to every other node in the network.
Tree network: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing.

The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. Every bit an instance, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections tin be routed via a fundamental physical location. Concrete layout is not completely irrelevant, still, every bit common ducting and equipment locations tin correspond single points of failure due to issues like fires, power failures and flooding.

Overlay network [edit]

An overlay network is a virtual network that is built on superlative of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are continued by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, peradventure through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on summit of the Internet.^[28]

Overlay networks have been effectually since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over phone lines using modems before any data network existed.

The most striking instance of an overlay network is the Cyberspace itself. The Internet itself was initially congenital as an overlay on the telephone network.^[28] Even today, each Internet node can communicate with almost any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. Address resolution and routing are the means that let mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network.

Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash tabular array, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a tabular array (really a map) indexed past keys.

Overlay networks have as well been proposed as a way to ameliorate Cyberspace routing, such as through quality of service guarantees achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have non seen wide acceptance largely because they crave modification of all routers in the network.^{[ citation needed ]} On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can command, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination.

For case, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Bookish research includes end system multicast,^[29] resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others.

Network links [edit]

The transmission media (often referred to in the literature every bit the physical medium) used to link devices to form a computer network include electrical cable, optical fiber, and complimentary infinite. In the OSI model, the software to handle the media is divers at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer.

A widely adopted family that uses copper and fiber media in local area network (LAN) engineering science are collectively known every bit Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Wireless LAN standards use radio waves, others use infrared signals as a transmission medium. Electric line communication uses a building's power cabling to transmit data.

Wired [edit]

The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.

Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 meg bits per second.^{[ citation needed ]}
ITU-T G.hn engineering uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed local area network.
Twisted pair cabling is used for wired Ethernet and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can exist utilized for both voice and data manual. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The manual speed ranges from 2 Mbit/southward to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.

2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the earth.

An optical cobweb is a glass cobweb. Information technology carries pulses of calorie-free that represent data via lasers and optical amplifiers. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and amnesty to electrical interference. Using dense wave division multiplexing, optical fibers can simultaneously deport multiple streams of data on unlike wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of $.25 per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cablevision carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents. At that place are two bones types of fiber optics, single-style optical fiber (SMF) and multi-mode optical fiber (MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of existence able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate just is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the information charge per unit and cable course.^[30]

Wireless [edit]

Computers are very frequently connected to networks using wireless links

Network connections tin be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic ways of advice.

Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave advice uses World-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately twoscore miles (64 km) apart.
Communications satellites – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in infinite, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) higher up the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and Idiot box signals.
Cellular networks use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by a low-power transceiver.
Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless LANs utilize a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs apply spread spectrum engineering to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited expanse. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known every bit Wi-Fi.
Costless-space optical communication uses visible or invisible calorie-free for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the Interplanetary Cyberspace.^[31]
IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001.^[32]

The final ii cases have a big round-trip delay fourth dimension, which gives wearisome two-fashion advice but doesn't preclude sending big amounts of information (they tin have high throughput).

Network nodes [edit]

Apart from whatsoever physical manual media, networks are built from additional bones organization building blocks, such as network interface controllers (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Any particular slice of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks so may perform multiple functions.

Network interfaces [edit]

An ATM network interface in the class of an accessory bill of fare. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.

A network interface controller (NIC) is figurer hardware that connects the figurer to the network media and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.

In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent retentivity. To avert address conflicts between network devices, the Establish of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC accost uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three about pregnant octets are reserved to place NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using merely their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.

Repeaters and hubs [edit]

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans information technology of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstacle so that the betoken can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or fifty-fifty hundreds of kilometers apart.

Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model just still require a small amount of fourth dimension to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation filibuster that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule.

An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. In addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by mod network switches.

Bridges and switches [edit]

Network bridges and network switches are singled-out from a hub in that they only frontwards frames to the ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forrad to all ports.^[33] Bridges only take ii ports merely a switch tin can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches.

Bridges and switches operate at the data link layer (layer two) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between two or more than network segments to grade a unmarried local network. Both are devices that forward frames of data between ports based on the destination MAC accost in each frame.^[34] They learn the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports except the source, and discovers the location from the reply.

Bridges and switches divide the network's standoff domain simply maintain a unmarried broadcast domain. Network partition through bridging and switching helps break downwards a big, congested network into an assemblage of smaller, more efficient networks.

Routers [edit]

A typical home or small part router showing the ADSL telephone line and Ethernet network cablevision connections

A router is an internetworking device that frontwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing data included in the parcel. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing tabular array. A router uses its routing tabular array to determine where to forward packets and does not crave broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks.

Modems [edit]

Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this 1 or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog point that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Early modems modulated audio signals sent over a standard vocalisation telephone line. Modems are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a digital subscriber line technology and cable telly systems using DOCSIS technology.

Firewalls [edit]

A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network security and admission rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital part firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.

Advice protocols [edit]

The TCP/IP model and its relation to common protocols used at dissimilar layers of the model.

Message flows betwixt two devices (A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP model in the presence of a router (R). Red flows are constructive communication paths, blackness paths are across the actual network links.

A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication protocols have diverse characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit fashion or packet switching, and they may utilize hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

In a protocol stack, oft constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below information technology until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information beyond the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the World wide web protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.eleven (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user's personal estimator when the user is surfing the web.

There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

Mutual protocols [edit]

Internet Protocol Suite [edit]

The Internet Protocol Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its cadre, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version four (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing adequacy. The Net Protocol Suite is the defining fix of protocols for the Internet.^[35]

IEEE 802 [edit]

IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local expanse networks and metropolitan surface area networks. The consummate IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a various set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a apartment addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers one and 2 of the OSI model.

For instance, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access Command protocol, which forms the ground for the hallmark mechanisms used in VLANs^[36] (but it is also found in WLANs^[37]) – it is what the domicile user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless admission key".

Ethernet [edit]

Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802.three published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Wireless LAN [edit]

Wireless LAN based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, besides widely known every bit WLAN or WiFi, is probably the virtually well-known fellow member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet.

SONET/SDH [edit]

Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a multifariousness of unlike sources, primarily to support circuit-switched digital telephony. Even so, due to its protocol neutrality and send-oriented features, SONET/SDH as well was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Style (ATM) frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode [edit]

Asynchronous Transfer Manner (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such every bit the Net Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM has similarities with both excursion and packet switched networking. This makes information technology a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional loftier-throughput data traffic, and existent-time, low-latency content such equally phonation and video. ATM uses a connectedness-oriented model in which a virtual excursion must exist established between two endpoints before the actual information exchange begins.

ATM still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connexion betwixt an Internet access provider and the home user.^[38] ^{[ needs update ]}

Cellular standards [edit]

In that location are a number of dissimilar digital cellular standards, including: Global Organization for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Parcel Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Development-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (Edge), Universal Mobile Telecommunications Arrangement (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).^[39]

Routing [edit]

Routing calculates good paths through a network for data to take. For example, from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-vii-vi, ane-8-10-6 or 1-9-10-six, every bit these are the shortest routes.

Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

In packet-switched networks, routing protocols direct packet forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers can likewise forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from the limited performance. The routing process commonly directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very of import for efficient routing.

There are usually multiple routes that can exist taken, and to choose between them, dissimilar elements can be considered to decide which routes get installed into the routing table, such as (sorted past priority):

Prefix-Length: where longer subnet masks are preferred (independent if it is within a routing protocol or over a unlike routing protocol)
Metric: where a lower metric/cost is preferred (just valid inside one and the aforementioned routing protocol)
Authoritative distance: where a lower altitude is preferred (but valid betwixt different routing protocols)

Most routing algorithms utilize just one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the employ of multiple alternative paths.

Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its supposition that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a unmarried routing tabular array entry to stand for the route to a group of devices. In big networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has get the dominant course of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is nevertheless widely used within localized environments.

Geographic scale [edit]

Networks may be characterized by many backdrop or features, such every bit concrete capacity, organizational purpose, user authorization, access rights, and others. Another singled-out classification method is that of the concrete extent or geographic scale.

Nanoscale network

A nanoscale advice network has cardinal components implemented at the nanoscale including message carriers and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such every bit those found in biological systems and too tends to operate in environments that would be as well harsh for classical advice.^[xl]

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for advice among computers and different information technological devices shut to i person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The achieve of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.^[41] A wired PAN is usually synthetic with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such equally Bluetooth and infrared communication typically class a wireless PAN.

Local area network

A local expanse network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, schoolhouse, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are most probable based on Ethernet technology. Newer standards such equally ITU-T Yard.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.^[42]

The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a broad area network (WAN), include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.three LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to 100 Gbit/southward, standardized by IEEE in 2010.^[43] Currently, 400 Gbit/s Ethernet is being developed.

A LAN can be continued to a WAN using a router.

Home expanse network

A home surface area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the abode, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such every bit printers and mobile computing devices. An important office is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider.

Storage surface area network

A storage expanse network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides admission to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers and so that the devices announced like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are by and large not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complication of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and minor to medium-sized business organization environments.

Campus area network

A campus expanse network (CAN) is fabricated up of an interconnection of LANs within a express geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and manual media (optical cobweb, copper plant, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant/possessor (an enterprise, academy, government, etc.).

For case, a university campus network is probable to link a multifariousness of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and educatee residence halls.

Backbone network

A backbone network is role of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same edifice, beyond different buildings, or over a wide surface area.

For example, a large visitor might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located effectually the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. When designing a network backbone, network performance and network congestion are disquisitional factors to take into account. Normally, the courage network's chapters is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it.

Another case of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cablevision and optical networking that carry the majority of information between wide area networks (WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks.

Metropolitan surface area network

A metropolitan area network (Human being) is a big computer network that ordinarily spans a city or a large campus.

Wide area network

A broad area network (WAN) is a estimator network that covers a big geographic area such as a urban center, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such every bit telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes utilize of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies by and large function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Enterprise private network

An enterprise individual network is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they tin share computer resources.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links betwixt nodes are carried past open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Cyberspace) instead of by concrete wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, only a VPN demand not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

VPN may accept all-time-effort operation or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN client and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-indicate.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.^[44]

Organizational scope [edit]

Networks are typically managed past the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may utilise a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network admission to the Cyberspace, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.

Intranet [edit]

An intranet is a ready of networks that are nether the control of a single administrative entity. The intranet uses the IP protocol and IP-based tools such equally web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits the employ of the intranet to its authorized users. Well-nigh commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an arrangement. A large intranet typically has at least i web server to provide users with organizational information. An intranet is also anything backside the router on a local area network.

[edit]

An extranet is a network that is also under the authoritative command of a single arrangement simply supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an system may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business organization partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. Network connection to an extranet is often, but non always, implemented via WAN technology.

Internet [edit]

An internetwork is the connexion of multiple different types of computer networks to class a single calculator network past layering on top of the dissimilar networking software and connecting them together using routers.

Partial map of the Internet, based on the January 15, 2005 data found on opte.org Archived 2005-01-15 at the Wayback Machine. Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing ii IP addresses. The length of the lines is indicative of the delay between those two nodes. This graph represents less than thirty% of the Form C networks reachable.

The Internet is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global arrangement of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and individual computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Avant-garde Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the Usa Department of Defence. The Internet utilizes copper communications and the optical networking backbone to enable the World Wide Spider web (World wide web), the Internet of Things, video transfer, and a broad range of information services.

Participants on the Net use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and accost registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

Darknet [edit]

A darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is simply accessible through specialized software. A darknet is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes chosen "friends" (F2F)^[45] — using not-standard protocols and ports.

Darknets are singled-out from other distributed peer-to-peer networks every bit sharing is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users tin can communicate with fiddling fear of governmental or corporate interference.^[46]

Network service [edit]

Network services are applications hosted by servers on a figurer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to assist the network itself to operate.

The Www, Electronic mail,^[47] press and network file sharing are examples of well-known network services. Network services such equally DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and MAC addresses (people think names like "nm.lan" improve than numbers like "210.121.67.18"),^[48] and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.^[49]

Services are unremarkably based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service.

Network performance [edit]

Bandwidth [edit]

Bandwidth in fleck/southward may refer to consumed bandwidth, respective to accomplished throughput or goodput, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected past technologies such as bandwidth shaping, bandwidth direction, bandwidth throttling, bandwidth cap, bandwidth allocation (for example bandwidth allocation protocol and dynamic bandwidth resource allotment), etc. A chip stream'south bandwidth is proportional to the average consumed signal bandwidth in hertz (the average spectral bandwidth of the analog signal representing the bit stream) during a studied time interval.

Network delay [edit]

Network delay is a design and performance characteristic of a telecommunications network. Information technology specifies the latency for a scrap of data to travel across the network from i advice endpoint to another. Information technology is typically measured in multiples or fractions of a second. Filibuster may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually study both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the filibuster into several parts:

Processing filibuster – time it takes a router to procedure the bundle header
Queuing delay – time the packet spends in routing queues
Transmission delay – time it takes to push the packet'southward bits onto the link
Propagation delay – fourth dimension for a signal to propagate through the media

A certain minimum level of filibuster is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to transmit a packet serially through a link. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to network congestion. IP network delays can range from a few milliseconds to several hundred milliseconds.

Quality of service [edit]

Depending on the installation requirements, network operation is usually measured by the quality of service of a telecommunications product. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput, jitter, bit fault rate and latency.

The post-obit list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit-switched network and ane type of packet-switched network, viz. ATM:

Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads.^[l] Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and repeat.
ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance tin can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect fourth dimension, stability, engineering, modulation technique, and modem enhancements.^[51] ^{[ verification needed ]} ^{[ full citation needed ]}

In that location are many ways to measure out the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example, state transition diagrams are often used to model queuing operation in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.^[52]

Network congestion [edit]

Network congestion occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater information load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues go also full, packets have to be discarded, and and so networks rely on re-transmission. Typical effects of congestion include queueing delay, parcel loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in offered load pb either to only a pocket-sized increment in the network throughput or to a reduction in network throughput.

Network protocols that utilise aggressive retransmissions to compensate for parcel loss tend to proceed systems in a state of network congestion—fifty-fifty subsequently the initial load is reduced to a level that would non normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can showroom ii stable states nether the aforementioned level of load. The stable country with low throughput is known every bit congestive collapse.

Mod networks use congestion control, congestion abstention and traffic control techniques to try to avoid congestion collapse (i.due east. endpoints typically wearisome down or sometimes even stop transmission entirely when the network is congested). These techniques include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.11's CSMA/CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and fair queueing in devices such as routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing priority schemes then that some packets are transmitted with college priority than others. Priority schemes exercise not solve network congestion by themselves, only they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for some services. An example of this is 802.1p. A tertiary method to avert network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T Thousand.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to one Gbit/due south) Local expanse networking over existing domicile wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).

For the Internet, RFC 2914 addresses the subject area of congestion command in detail.

Network resilience [edit]

Network resilience is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the confront of faults and challenges to normal functioning."^[53]

Security [edit]

Computer networks are also used by security hackers to deploy estimator viruses or reckoner worms on devices continued to the network, or to forestall these devices from accessing the network via a denial-of-service assault.

Network security [edit]

Network Security consists of provisions and policies adopted past the network ambassador to preclude and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the figurer network and its network-attainable resources.^[54] Network security is the say-so of access to information in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and countersign that allows them access to information and programs within their say-so. Network security is used on a variety of figurer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals.

Network surveillance [edit]

Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over calculator networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may exist done past or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require say-so from a courtroom or other contained agency.

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

Surveillance is very useful to governments and police enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and preclude/investigate criminal action. With the appearance of programs such as the Full Data Awareness program, technologies such as loftier-speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.^[55]

However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such every bit Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Marriage—have expressed business concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance order, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T.^[55] ^[56] The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into authorities websites in protest of what information technology considers "draconian surveillance".^[57] ^[58]

End to stop encryption [edit]

End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between 2 communicating parties. Information technology involves the originating party encrypting data and then only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on 3rd parties. Finish-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such every bit Net providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. Terminate-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity.

Examples of end-to-finish encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for email, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.

Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, non between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for instance, LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they do non. Some systems that normally offer stop-to-stop encryption have turned out to incorporate a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for case Skype or Hushmail.

The end-to-cease encryption image does non directly address risks at the endpoints of the advice themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or primal escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic assay, which relates to things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.

SSL/TLS [edit]

The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Spider web in the mid-1990s made information technology obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. Netscape took the beginning shot at a new standard. At the time, the ascendant spider web browser was Netscape Navigator. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a customer requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the customer. The SSL customer checks this certificate (all spider web browsers come with an exhaustive list of CA root certificates preloaded), and if the document checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a symmetric-fundamental cipher for use in the session. The session is at present in a very secure encrypted tunnel betwixt the SSL server and the SSL client.^[xxx]

Views of networks [edit]

Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users tin can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the aforementioned LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to proceed that network upwardly and running. A community of involvement has less of a connection of beingness in a local area and should be thought of every bit a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly as well communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators can run into networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The concrete perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.thousand., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a gear up of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.

Both users and administrators are enlightened, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a customs of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is simply attainable by authorized users (e.g. employees).^[59] Intranets do not accept to be connected to the Internet, merely generally have a limited connexion. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users exterior of the intranet (e.one thousand. business concern partners, customers).^[59]

Unofficially, the Internet is the fix of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an technology viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP accost space and substitution information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business organisation-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some class of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can exist deeply superimposed onto the Net, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Individual Network (VPN) technology.

Journals and newsletters [edit]

Open Figurer Scientific discipline (open access journal)

References [edit]

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This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Assistants document: "Federal Standard 1037C".

External links [edit]

Networking at Curlie
IEEE Ethernet manufacturer information
A computer networking acronym guide

smithlibehiss.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network